Verbs

VERBS AND VERBALS..
VERBS.
Verb,—the word of the sentence.
199. The term verb is from the Latin verbum meaning word: hence it is the word of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressed without a verb. When the child cries, "Apple!" it means, See the apple! or I have an apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" the meaning is, "Yonder is a sail!"
Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or commands; and none of these can be put before the mind without the use of a verb.
One group or a group of words.
200. The verb may not always be a single word. On account of the lack of inflections, verb phrases are very frequent. Hence the verb may consist of:
(1) One word; as, "The young man obeyed."
(2) Several words of verbal nature, making one expression; as, (a) "Some day it may be considered reasonable," (b) "Fearing lest he might have been anticipated."
(3) One or more verbal words united with other words to compose one verb phrase: as in the sentences, (a) "They knew well that this woman ruled over thirty millions of subjects;" (b) "If all the flummery and extravagance of an army were done away with, the money could be made to go much further;" (c) "It is idle cant to pretend anxiety for the better distribution of wealth until we can devise means by which this preying upon people of small incomes can be put a stop to."
In (a), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in (b), a verb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; in (c), an article, a noun, a preposition, are united with verbs as one verb phrase.
Definition and caution.
201. A verb is a word used as a predicate, to say something to or about some person or thing. In giving a definition, we consider a verb as one word.
Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a word used as a predicate." Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In (1), obeyed is a predicate; in (2, a), may be considered is a unit in doing the work of one predicate; in (2, b), might have been anticipated is also one predicate, but fearing is not a predicate, hence is not a verb; in (3, b), to go is no predicate, and not a verb; in (3, c), to pretend and preying have something of verbal nature in expressing action in a faint and general way, but cannot be predicates.
In the sentence, "Put money in thy purse," put is the predicate, with some word understood; as, "Put thou money in thy purse."
VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
The nature of the transitive verb.
202. By examining a few verbs, it may be seen that not all verbs are used alike. All do not express action: some denote state or condition. Of those expressing action, all do not express it in the same way; for example, in this sentence from Bulwer,—"The proud lone took care to conceal the anguish she endured; and the pride of woman has an hypocrisy which can deceive the most penetrating, and shame the most astute,"—every one of the verbs in Italics has one or more words before or after it, representing something which it influences or controls. In the first, lone took what? answer, care; endured what? anguish; etc. Each influences some object, which may be a person, or a material thing, or an idea. Has takes the object hypocrisy; can deceive has an object, the most penetrating; (can) shame also has an object, the most astute.
In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to the completion of the action expressed in the verb.
All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latin transire, which means to go over. Hence
Definition.
203. A transitive verb is one which must have an object to complete its meaning, and to receive the action expressed.
The nature of intransitive verbs.
204. Examine the verbs in the following paragraph:—
She sprang up at that thought, and, taking the staff which always guided her steps, she hastened to the neighboring shrine of Isis. Till she had been under the guardianship of the kindly Greek, that staff had sufficed to conduct the poor blind girl from corner to corner of Pompeii.—Bulwer
In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been examined. Sprang, or sprang up, expresses action, but it is complete in itself, does not affect an object; hastened is similar in use; had been expresses condition, or state of being, and can have no object; had sufficed means had been sufficient, and from its meaning cannot have an object.
Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). Hence
Definition.
205. An intransitive verb is one which is complete in itself, or which is completed by other words without requiring an object.
Study use, not form, of verbs here.
206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, according to their use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boy walked for two hours," or "The boy walked the horse;" "The rains swelled the river," or "The river swelled because of the rain;" etc.
The important thing to observe is, many words must be distinguished as transitive or intransitive by use, not by form.
207. Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by prepositions. These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may follow the verb, and be used as an integral part of it: for example,—
Asking her pardon for having withstood her.—Scott.
I can wish myself no worse than to have it all to undergo a second time.—Kingsley.
A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child that has outgrown its playthings.—Hawthorne.
It is amusing to walk up and down the pier and look at the countenances passing by.—B. Taylor.
He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I loved, laughed at, and pitied him.—Goldsmith.
My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had cunningly picked out from her mother.—Swift.
Exercises.
(a) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the following:—
1. The women and children collected together at a distance.
2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna.
3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden a surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view him; he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him.
4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs.
5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which was a sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path or road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; most of them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells lay broken and scattered upon the ground.
6. Accordingly I got everything on board, charged my gun, set sail cautiously, along shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to tremble.
7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made their way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were advancing toward me.
(b) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five intransitive verbs.
VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.
Meaning of active voice.
208. As has been seen, transitive verbs are the only kind that can express action so as to go over to an object. This implies three things,—the agent, or person or thing acting; the verb representing the action; the person or object receiving the act.
In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by we; the action is asserted by reached and accepted; the things acted upon are village and invitation. Here the subject is represented as doing something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use of a transitive verb is called the active voice.
Definition.
209. The active voice is that form of a verb which represents the subject as acting; or
The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes the subject and the agent the same word.
A question.
210. Intransitive verbs are always active voice. Let the student explain why.
Meaning of passive voice.
211. In the assertion of an action, it would be natural to suppose, that, instead of always representing the subject as acting upon some person or thing, it must often happen that the subject is spoken of as acted upon; and the person or thing acting may or may not be expressed in the sentence: for example,—
All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are speedily punished. They are punished by fear.—Emerson.
Here the subject infractions does nothing: it represents the object toward which the action of are punished is directed, yet it is the subject of the same verb. In the first sentence the agent is not expressed; in the second, fear is the agent of the same action.
So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject the same word, we have the object and subject the same word, and the agent may be omitted from the statement of the action.
Passive is from the Latin word patior, meaning to endure or suffer; but in ordinary grammatical use passive means receiving an action.
Definition.
212. The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the subject as being acted upon; or—
The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the subject and the object by the same word.
Exercises.
(a) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice:—
1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about while the parties were preparing.
2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees.
3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder, tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a large visor.
4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; their faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety.
5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any.
6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoon the banks were crowded with spectators.
7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had been already formed.
8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till some officer came and opened the fire plug.
9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it.
(b) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in the passive voice.
MOOD.
Definition.
213. The word mood is from the Latin modus, meaning manner, way, method. Hence, when applied to verbs,—
Mood means the manner of conceiving and expressing action or being of some subject.
The three ways.
214. There are three chief ways of expressing action or being:—
(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or assumption.
(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind.
(3) As urged or commanded.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Deals with facts.
215. The term indicative is from the Latin indicare (to declare, or assert). The indicative represents something as a fact,—
Affirms or denies.
(1) By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true; thus,—
Distinction is the consequence, never the object, of a great mind.—Allston.
I do not remember when or by whom I was taught to read; because I cannot and never could recollect a time when I could not read my Bible.—D. Webster.
Assumed as a fact.
Caution.
(2) By assuming a thing to be true without declaring it to be so. This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by if (meaning admitting that, granting that, etc.), though, although, etc. Notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible; it is assumed to be a fact: for example,—
If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if her population little exceeded two millions; if she was without government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, without military knowledge,—still her citizens had a just and elevated sense of her rights.—A. Hamilton.
(3) By asking a question to find out some fact; as,—
Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?—Hamilton.
With respect to novels what shall I say?—N. Webster.
Definition.
216 .The indicative mood is that form of a verb which represents a thing as a fact, or inquires about some fact.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Meaning of the word.
217. Subjunctive means subjoined, or joined as dependent or subordinate to something else.
This meaning is misleading.
If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect every dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, and every clause not dependent to have its verb in some other mood.
But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. 215, 2) several subjoined clauses introduced by if have the indicative mood, and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in the subjunctive mood.
Cautions.
Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a student who wishes to understand and use the English subjunctive:—
(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main difference is, that the subjunctive has no -s as the ending of the present tense, third person singular; as, "If he come."
(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certain words will not be a safe rule to guide you.
(3) The meaning of the verb itself must be keenly studied.
Definition.
218. The subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb which expresses action or being, not as a fact, but as merely conceived of in the mind.
Subjunctive in Independent Clauses.
I. Expressing a Wish.
219. The following are examples of this use:—
Heaven rest her soul!—Moore.
God grant you find one face there You loved when all was young.—Kingsley.
Now tremble dimples on your cheek, Sweet be your lips to taste and speak.—Beddoes.
Long die thy happy days before thy death.—Shakespeare.
II. A Contingent Declaration or Question.
220. This really amounts to the conclusion, or principal clause, in a sentence, of which the condition is omitted.
Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to choose one] would be this Goethe.—Carlyle.
I could lie down like a tired child,And weep away the life of careWhich I have borne and yet must bear.—Shelley.
Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see their loveliness, might it not be as well to ask after the most beautiful road, rather than the shortest?—De Quincey.
Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses.
I. Condition or Supposition.
221. The most common way of representing the action or being as merely thought of, is by putting it into the form of a supposition or condition; as,—
Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning be the same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified clouds.—Franklin.
Here no assertion is made that the two things are the same; but, if the reader merely conceives them for the moment to be the same, the writer can make the statement following. Again,—
If it be Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants sit on the church steps and con their psalm books.—Longfellow.
STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
222. There are three kinds of conditional sentences:—
Real or true.
(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before the mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for example,—
If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their names were not found in the registers of heralds, they were recorded in the Book of Life.—Macaulay.
Ideal,—may or may not be true.
(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, and may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled; as,—
If, in our case, the representative system ultimately fail, popular government must be pronounced impossible.—D. Webster.
If this be the glory of Julius, the first great founder of the Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second founder.—Bryce.
If any man consider the present aspects of what is called by distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics. —Emerson.
Unreal—cannot be true.
(3) Suppositions contrary to fact, which cannot be true, or conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in order to suggest what might be or might have been true; thus,—
If these things were true, society could not hold together. —Lowell.
Did not my writings produce me some solid pudding, the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me.—Franklin.
Had he for once cast all such feelings aside, and striven energetically to save Ney, it would have cast such an enhancing light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its absence.—Bayne.
NOTE.—Conditional sentences are usually introduced by if, though, except, unless, etc.; but when the verb precedes the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example, "Were I bidden to say how the highest genius could be most advantageously employed," etc.
Exercise.
In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:—
1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, clear, melodious, and sonorous.—Carlyle.
2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do you think, be any the happier?—Thackeray.
3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.—Emerson.
4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was regarded as a prodigy.—Macaulay.
5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take such caution that he should have the honor entire.—Swift.
6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have written, since he [Byron] was dead.—N. P. Willis.
7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what native of the city would not mourn over its fall?—Gayarre.
8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a failure of the association or union to effect the object for which it was created.—Calhoun.
II. Subjunctive of Purpose.
223. The subjunctive, especially be, may, might, and should, is used to express purpose, the clause being introduced by that or lest; as,—
It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he might be strong to labor.—Franklin.
I have been the more particular...that you may compare such unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made there.—Id.
He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what had passed, lest in the strife They should engage with Julian's men.—Southey.
III. Subjunctive of Result.
224. The subjunctive may represent the result toward which an action tends:—
So many thoughts move to and fro,That vain it were her eyes to close.—Coleridge.
So live, that when thy summons comes to joinThe innumerable caravan...Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night.—Bryant.
IV. In Temporal Clauses.
225. The English subjunctive, like the Latin, is sometimes used in a clause to express the time when an action is to take place.
Let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming.—D. Webster.
Rise up, before it be too late!—Hawthorne.
But it will not be longEre this be thrown aside.—Wordsworth.
V. In Indirect Questions.
226. The subjunctive is often found in indirect questions, the answer being regarded as doubtful.
Ask the great man if there be none greater.—Emerson
What the best arrangement were, none of us could say.—Carlyle.
Whether it were morning or whether it were afternoon, in her confusion she had not distinctly known.—De Quincey.
VI. Expressing a Wish.
227. After a verb of wishing, the subjunctive is regularly used in the dependent clause.
The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it were! —Emerson.
Bright star! Would I were steadfast as thou art!—Keats.
I've wished that little isle had wings,And we, within its fairy bowers,Were wafted off to seas unknown.—Moore.
VII. In a Noun Clause.
Subject.
228. The noun clause, in its various uses as subject, object, in apposition, etc., often contains a subjunctive.
The essence of originality is not that it be new.—Carlyle
Apposition or logical subject.
To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October fruits, it is necessary that you be breathing the sharp October or November air.—Thoreau.
Complement.
The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor equivalent, is, that everything be in its place.—Coleridge.
Object.
As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men they be.—Coleridge.
Some might lament that I were cold.—Shelley.
After verbs of commanding.
This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of commanding.
See that there be no traitors in your camp.—Tennyson.
Come, tell me all that thou hast seen,And look thou tell me true.—Scott.
See that thy scepter be heavy on his head.—De Quincey.
VIII. Concessive Clauses.
229. The concession may be expressed—
(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,—
Be the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with rheumatism to the end of his days.—Dickens.
Be the appeal made to the understanding or the heart, the sentence is the same—that rejects it.—Brougham
(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be
(a) Pronoun.
Whatever betide, we'll turn aside,And see the Braes of Yarrow.—Wordsworth.
(b) Adjective.
That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it may be, is the ultimate fact of man's life.—Carlyle.
(c) Adverb.
Wherever he dream under mountain or stream,The spirit he loves remains.—Shelley.
Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood.
230. As shown by the wide range of literature from which these examples are selected, the subjunctive is very much used in literary English, especially by those who are artistic and exact in the expression of their thought.
At the present day, however, the subjunctive is becoming less and less used. Very many of the sentences illustrating the use of the subjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using the indicative to express the same thoughts.
The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to express a wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact.
In spoken English, the subjunctive were is much used in a wish or a condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other subjunctive forms are.
It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is this true of unreal conditions in past time; for example,—
Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we had found [should have found] a poem here.—Carlyle.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Definition.
231. The imperative mood is the form of the verb used in direct commands, entreaties, or requests.
Usually second person.
232. The imperative is naturally used mostly with the second person, since commands are directed to a person addressed.
(1) Command.
Call up the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your words; point to their immortal works.—J. Q. Adams.
Honor all men; love all men; fear none.—Channing.
(2) Entreaty.
Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy faceSpare me and mine, nor let us need the wrathOf the mad unchained elements.—Bryant.
(3) Request.
"Hush! mother," whispered Kit. "Come along with me."—Dickens
Tell me, how was it you thought of coming here?—Id.
Sometimes with first person in the plural.
But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person. Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, but I + you, or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative with we in a command, request, etc., to you implied in it. This is scarcely ever found outside of poetry.
Part we in friendship from your land,And, noble earl, receive my hand.—Scott.
Then seek we not their camp—for thereThe silence dwells of my despair.—Campbell.
Break we our watch up.—Shakespeare.
Usually this is expressed by let with the objective: "Let us go." And the same with the third person: "Let him be accursed."
Exercises on the Moods.
(a) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and what special use it is of that mood:—
1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be.
2.
Mark thou this difference, child of earth!While each performs his part,Not all the lip can speak is worthThe silence of the heart.
3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were the supreme delight of knowing thy will!
4.
'Twere worth ten years of peaceful life,One glance at their array!
5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred before justice.
6.
The vigorous sun would catch it up at eveAnd use it for an anvil till he had filledThe shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts.
7.
Meet is it changes should controlOur being, lest we rust in ease.
8.
Quoth she, "The Devil take the goose,And God forget the stranger!"
9. Think not that I speak for your sakes.
10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar.
11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity?
12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has taken the pains to think of.
13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and prosperities he like, no literary man.
14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these flagrant points compose!
15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may find my poor, ruined, but repentant child."
16.
That sheaf of darts, will it not fall unbound,Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt,Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt?
17.
Forget thyself to marble, tillWith a sad leaden downward castThou fix them on the earth as fast.
18.
He, as though an instrument,Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls,That they might answer him.
19.
From the moss violets and jonquils peep,And dart their arrowy odor through the brain,Till you might faint with that delicious pain.
20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has; alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree.
21.
The fat earth feed thy branchy rootThat under deeply strikes!The northern morning o'er thee shoot,High up in silver spikes!
22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion, all are at last contained in the Eternal cause.
23. God send Rome one such other sight!
24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one mentions the United States to the prisoner."
25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right to vote, she ought to have it.
26. Though he were dumb, it would speak.
27. Meantime, whatever she did,—whether it were in display of her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a general party,—nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons.
28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence whether there be a man behind it or no.
(b) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood, five in the subjunctive, five in the imperative.
TENSE.
Definition.
233. Tense means time. The tense of a verb is the form or use indicating the time of an action or being.
Tenses in English.
Old English had only two tenses,—the present tense, which represented present and future time; and the past tense. We still use the present for the future in such expressions as, "I go away to-morrow;" "If he comes, tell him to wait."
But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of the natural time divisions,—present, past, and future,—but has other tenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages, such as Latin and Greek.
The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past tenses, however: the others are compounds of verbal forms with various helping verbs, called auxiliaries; such as be, have, shall, will.
The tenses in detail.
234. Action or being may be represented as occurring in present, past, or future time, by means of the present, the past, and the future tense. It may also be represented as finished in present or past or future time by means of the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses.
Not only is this so: there are what are called definite forms of these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the action or being. These make the English speech even more exact than other languages, as will be shown later on, in the conjugations.
PERSON AND NUMBER.
235. The English verb has never had full inflections for number and person, as the classical languages have.
When the older pronoun thou was in use, there was a form of the verb to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou walkest," present; "Thou walkedst," past; also, in the third person singular, a form ending in -eth, as, "It is not in man that walketh, to direct his steps."
But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically only one ending for person and number. This is the third person, singular number; as, "He walks;" and this only in the present tense indicative. This is important in questions of agreement when we come to syntax.
CONJUGATION.
Definition.
236. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of the verb in the various voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers.
In classical languages, conjugation means joining together the numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in English, inflections are so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the forms and the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice, mood, tense, etc.
Few forms.
237. Verbs in modern English have only four or five forms; for example, walk has walk, walks, walked, walking, sometimes adding the old forms walkest, walkedst, walketh. Such verbs as choose have five,—choose, chooses, chose, choosing, chosen (old, choosest, chooseth, chosest).
The verb be has more forms, since it is composed of several different roots,—am, are, is, were, been, etc.
238. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB BE.
Indicative Mood.
PRESENT TENSE.
PAST TENSE.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1. I am
We are
1. I was
We were
2. You are(thou art)
You are
2. You were(thou wast, wert)
You were
3. [He] is
[They] are
3. [He] was
[They were]
Subjunctive Mood.
PRESENT TENSE.
PAST TENSE.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
1. I be
We be
1. I were
We were
2. You (thou) be
You be
2. You were(thou wert)
You were
3. [He] be
[They] be
3. [He] were
[They] were

Imperative Mood.
PRESENT TENSE
Singular and Plural
Be.
Remarks on the verb be.
239. This conjugation is pieced out with three different roots: (1) am, is; (2) was, were; (3) be.
Instead of the plural are, Old English had beoth and sind or sindon, same as the German sind. Are is supposed to have come from the Norse language.
The old indicative third person plural be is sometimes found in literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for example,—
Where be the sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots drove in and out?—Thackeray
Where be the gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?—Whittier
Uses of be.
240. The forms of the verb be have several uses:—
(1) As principal verbs.
The light that never was on sea and land.—Wordsworth.
(2) As auxiliary verbs, in four ways,—
(a) With verbal forms in -ing (imperfect participle) to form the definite tenses.
Broadswords are maddening in the rear,—Each broadsword bright was brandishing like beam of light.—Scott.
(b) With the past participle in -ed, -en, etc., to form the passive voice.
By solemn vision and bright silver dream,His infancy was nurtured.—Shelley.
(c) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being equivalent to the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; as,
When we are goneFrom every object dear to mortal sight.—Wordsworth
We drank tea, which was now become an occasional banquet.—Goldsmith.
(d) With the infinitive, to express intention, obligation, condition, etc.; thus,
It was to have been called the Order of Minerva.—Thackeray.
Ingenuity and cleverness are to be rewarded by State prizes.—Id.
If I were to explain the motion of a body falling to the ground.—Burke
241. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB CHOOSE.
Indicative Mood.
PRESENT TENSE.
PAST TENSE.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
1. I choose
We choose
1. I chose
We chose
2. You choose
You choose
2. You chose
You chose
3. [He] chooses
[They] choose
3. [He] chose
[They] chose

Subjunctive Mood.
PRESENT TENSE.
PAST TENSE.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
1. I choose
We choose
1. I chose
We chose
2. You choose
You choose
2. You chose
You chose
3. [He] choose
[They] choose
3. [He] chose
[They] chose
Imperative Mood.
PRESENT TENSE
Singular and Plural
Choose.
FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB CHOOSE.
Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, etc.
242. In addition to the above inflected forms, there are many periphrastic or compound forms, made up of auxiliaries with the infinitives and participles. Some of these have been indicated in Sec. 240, (2).
The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows:—
(1) Future tense, by using shall and will with the simple or root form of the verb; as, "I shall be," "He will choose."
(2) Present perfect, past perfect, future perfect, tenses, by placing have, had, and shall (or will) have before the past participle of any verb; as, "I have gone" (present perfect), "I had gone" (past perfect), "I shall have gone" (future perfect).
(3) The definite form of each tense, by using auxiliaries with the imperfect participle active; as, "I am running," "They had been running."
(4) The passive forms, by using the forms of the verb be before the past participle of verbs; as, "I was chosen," "You are chosen."
243. The following scheme will show how rich our language is in verb phrases to express every variety of meaning. Only the third person, singular number, of each tense, will be given.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mood.
Present.
He chooses.
Present definite.
He is choosing.
Past.
He chose.
Past definite.
He was choosing.
Future.
He will choose.
Future definite.
He will he choosing.
Present perfect.
He has chosen.
Present perfect definite.
He has been choosing.
Past perfect.
He had chosen.
Past perfect definite.
He had been choosing.
Future perfect.
He will have chosen.
Future perfect definite.
He will have been choosing.

Subjunctive Mood.
Present.
[If, though, lest, etc.]
he choose.
Present definite.
"
he be choosing.
Past.
"
he chose (or were to choose).
Past definite.
"
he were choosing (or were to be choosing).
Present perfect.
"
he have chosen.
Present perfect definite.
"
he have been choosing.
Past perfect.
"
Same as indicative.
Past perfect definite.
"
Same as indicative.
Imperative Mood.
Present.
(2d per.)
Choose.
Present definite.
"
Be choosing.
NOTE.—Since participles and infinitives are not really verbs, but verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262).
PASSIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mood.
Present.
He is chosen.
Present definite.
He is being chosen.
Past.
He was chosen.
Past definite.
He was being chosen.
Future.
He will be chosen.
Future definite.
None.
Present perfect.
He has been chosen.
Present perfect definite.
None.
Past perfect.
He had been chosen.
Past perfect definite.
None.
Future perfect.
He will have been chosen.
Future perfect definite.
None.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present..
[If, though, lest, etc.]
he be chosen.
Present definite.
"
None.
Past.
"
he were chosen (or were to be chosen).
Past definite.
"
he were being chosen.
Present perfect.
"
he have been chosen.
Present perfect definite.
"
None.
Past Perfect.
"
he had been chosen.
Past perfect definite.
"
None.
Imperative Mood.
Present tense.
(2d per.)
Be chosen.
Also, in affirmative sentences, the indicative present and past tenses have emphatic forms made up of do and did with the infinitive or simple form; as, "He does strike," "He did strike."
[Note to Teacher.—This table is not to be learned now; if learned at all, it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms. Exercises should be given, however, to bring up sentences containing such of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily in literature.]
VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM.
Kinds.
244. According to form, verbs are strong or weak.
Definition.
A strong verb forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the present tense form, but adds no ending; as, run, ran; drive, drove.
A weak verb always adds an ending to the present to form the past tense, and may or may not change the vowel: as, beg, begged; lay, laid; sleep, slept; catch, caught.
245. TABLE OF STRONG VERBS.
NOTE. Some of these also have weak forms, which are in parentheses
Present Tense.
Past Tense.
Past Participle.
abide
abode
abode
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awoke (awaked)
awoke (awaked)
bear
bore
borne (active)born (passive)
begin
began
begun
behold
beheld
beheld
bid
bade, bid
bidden, bid
bind
bound
bound,[adj. bounden]
bite
bit
bitten, bit
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
chide
chid
chidden, chid
choose
chose
chosen
cleave
clove, clave (cleft)
cloven (cleft)
climb
[clomb] climbed
climbed
cling
clung
clung
come
came
come
crow
crew (crowed)
(crowed)
dig
dug
dug
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
drink
drank
drunk, drank[adj. drunken]
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate, eat
eaten, eat
fall
fell
fallen
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fling
flung
flung
fly
flew
flown
forbear
forbore
forborne
forget
forgot
forgotten
forsake
forsook
forsaken
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
got [gotten]
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grind
ground
ground
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung (hanged)
hung (hanged)
hold
held
held
know
knew
known
lie
lay
lain
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
run
ran
run
see
saw
seen
shake
shook
shaken
shear
shore (sheared)
shorn (sheared)
shine
shone
shone
shoot
shot
shot
shrink
shrank or shrunk
shrunk
shrive
shrove
shriven
sing
sang or sung
sung
sink
sank or sunk
sunk [adj. sunken]
sit
sat [sate]
sat
slay
slew
slain
slide
slid
slidden, slid
sling
slung
slung
slink
slunk
slunk
smite
smote
smitten
speak
spoke
spoken
spin
spun
spun
spring
sprang, sprung
sprung
stand
stood
stood
stave
stove (staved)
(staved)
steal
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stung
stung
stink
stunk, stank
stunk
stride
strode
stridden
strike
struck
struck, stricken
string
strung
strung
strive
strove
striven
swear
swore
sworn
swim
swam or swum
swum
swing
swung
swung
take
took
taken
tear
tore
torn
thrive
throve (thrived)
thriven (thrived)
throw
threw
thrown
tread
trod
trodden, trod
wear
wore
worn
weave
wove
woven
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
wring
wrung
wrung
write
wrote
written

Remarks on Certain Verb Forms.
246. Several of the perfect participles are seldom used except as adjectives: as, "his bounden duty," "the cloven hoof," "a drunken wretch," "a sunken snag." Stricken is used mostly of diseases; as, "stricken with paralysis."
The verb bear (to bring forth) is peculiar in having one participle (borne) for the active, and another (born) for the passive. When it means to carry or to endure, borne is also a passive.
The form clomb is not used in prose, but is much used in vulgar English, and sometimes occurs in poetry; as,—
Thou hast clomb aloft.—Wordsworth
Or pine grove whither woodman never clomb.—Coleridge
The forms of cleave are really a mixture of two verbs,—one meaning to adhere or cling; the other, to split. The former used to be cleave, cleaved, cleaved; and the latter, cleave, clave or clove, cloven. But the latter took on the weak form cleft in the past tense and past participle,—as (from Shakespeare), "O Hamlet! thou hast cleft my heart in twain,"—while cleave (to cling) sometimes has clove, as (from Holmes), "The old Latin tutor clove to Virgilius Maro." In this confusion of usage, only one set remains certain,—cleave, cleft, cleft (to split).
Crew is seldom found in present-day English.
Not a cock crew, nor a dog barked.—Irving.
Our cock, which always crew at eleven, now told us it was time for repose.—Goldsmith.
Historically, drunk is the one correct past participle of the verb drink. But drunk is very much used as an adjective, instead of drunken (meaning intoxicated); and, probably to avoid confusion with this, drank is a good deal used as a past participle: thus,—
We had each drank three times at the well.—B. Taylor.
This liquor was generally drank by Wood and Billings. —Thackeray.
Sometimes in literary English, especially in that of an earlier period, it is found that the verb eat has the past tense and past participle eat (ĕt), instead of ate and eaten; as, for example,—
It ate the food it ne'er had eat.—Coleridge.
How fairy Mab the junkets eat.—Milton.
The island princes overboldHave eat our substance.—Tennyson.
This is also very much used in spoken and vulgar English.
The form gotten is little used, got being the preferred form of past participle as well as past tense. One example out of many is,—
We had all got safe on shore.—De Foe.
Hung and hanged both are used as the past tense and past participle of hang; but hanged is the preferred form when we speak of execution by hanging; as,
The butler was hanged.—Bible.
The verb sat is sometimes spelled sate; for example,—
Might we have sate and talked where gowans blow.—Wordsworth.
He sate him down, and seized a pen.—Byron.
"But I sate still and finished my plaiting."—Kingsley.
Usually shear is a weak verb. Shorn and shore are not commonly used: indeed, shore is rare, even in poetry.
This heard Geraint, and grasping at his sword,Shore thro' the swarthy neck.—Tennyson.
Shorn is used sometimes as a participial adjective, as "a shorn lamb," but not much as a participle. We usually say, "The sheep were sheared" instead of "The sheep were shorn."
Went is borrowed as the past tense of go from the old verb wend, which is seldom used except in poetry; for example,—
If, maiden, thou would'st wend with meTo leave both tower and town.—Scott.
Exercises.
(a) From the table (Sec. 245), make out lists of verbs having the same vowel changes as each of the following:—
1. Fall, fell, fallen.
2. Begin, began, begun.
3. Find, found, found.
4. Give, gave, given.
5. Drive, drove, driven.
6. Throw, threw, thrown.
7. Fling, flung, flung.
8. Break, broke, broken.
9. Shake, shook, shaken.
10. Freeze, froze, frozen.
(b) Find sentences using ten past-tense forms of strong verbs.
(c) Find sentences using ten past participles of strong verbs.
[To the Teacher,—These exercises should be continued for several lessons, for full drill on the forms.]
DEFECTIVE STRONG VERBS.
247. There are several verbs which are lacking in one or more principal parts. They are as follows:—
PRESENT.
PAST.
PRESENT.
PAST.
may
might
[ought]
ought
can
could
shall
should
[must]
must
will
would
248. May is used as either indicative or subjunctive, as it has two meanings. It is indicative when it expresses permission, or, as it sometimes does, ability, like the word can: it is subjunctive when it expresses doubt as to the reality of an action, or when it expresses wish, purpose, etc.
Indicative Use: Permission. Ability.
If I may lightly employ the Miltonic figure, "far off his coming shines."—Winier.
A stripling arm might swayA mass no host could raise.—Scott.
His superiority none might question.—Channing.
Subjunctive use.
In whatever manner the separate parts of a constitution may be arranged, there is one general principle, etc.—Paine.
(See also Sec. 223.)
And from her fair and unpolluted fleshMay violets spring!—Shakespeare.
249. Can is used in the indicative only. The l in could did not belong there originally, but came through analogy with should and would. Could may be subjunctive, as in Sec. 220.
250. Must is historically a past-tense form, from the obsolete verb motan, which survives in the sentence, "So mote it be." Must is present or past tense, according to the infinitive used.
All must concede to him a sublime power of action.—Channing
This, of course, must have been an ocular deception.—Hawthorne.
251. The same remarks apply to ought, which is historically the past tense of the verb owe. Like must, it is used only in the indicative mood; as,
The just imputations on our own faith ought first to be removed.... Have we valuable territories and important posts...which ought long since to have been surrendered?—A. Hamilton.
It will be noticed that all the other defective verbs take the pure infinitive without to, while ought always has to.
Shall and Will.
252. The principal trouble in the use of shall and will is the disposition, especially in the United States, to use will and would, to the neglect of shall and should, with pronouns of the first person; as, "I think I will go."
Uses of shall and should.
The following distinctions must be observed:—
(1) With the FIRST PERSON, shall and should are used,—
Futurity and questions—first person.
(a) In making simple statements or predictions about future time; as,—
The time will come full soon, I shall be gone.—L. C. Moulton.
(b) In questions asking for orders, or implying obligation or authority resting upon the subject; as,—
With respect to novels, what shall I say?—N. Webster.
How shall I describe the luster which at that moment burst upon my vision?—C. Brockden Brown.
Second and third persons.
(2) With the SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, shall and should are used,—
(a) To express authority, in the form of command, promise, or confident prediction. The following are examples:—
Never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou shalt never want a friend to stand by thee.—Irving.
They shall have venison to eat, and corn to hoe.—Cooper.
The sea shall crush thee; yea, the ponderous wave up the loose beach shall grind and scoop thy grave.—Thaxter.
She should not walk, he said, through the dust and heat ofthe noonday;Nay, she should ride like a queen, not plod along like apeasant.—Longfellow.
(b) In indirect quotations, to express the same idea that the original speaker put forth (i.e., future action); for example,—
He declares that he shall win the purse from you.—Bulwer.
She rejects his suit with scorn, but assures him that she shall make great use of her power over him.—Macaulay.
Fielding came up more and more bland and smiling, with the conviction that he should win in the end.—A. Larned.
Those who had too presumptuously concluded that they should pass without combat were something disconcerted.—Scott.
(c) With direct questions of the second person, when the answer expected would express simple futurity; thus,—
"Should you like to go to school at Canterbury?"—Dickens.
First, second and third persons.
(3) With ALL THREE PERSONS,—
(a) Should is used with the meaning of obligation, and is equivalent to ought.
I never was what I should be.—H. James, Jr.
Milton! thou should'st be living at this hour.—Wordsworth.
He should not flatter himself with the delusion that he can make or unmake the reputation of other men.—Winter.
(b) Shall and should are both used in dependent clauses of condition, time, purpose, etc.; for example,—
When thy mindShall be a mansion for all stately forms.—Wordsworth.
Suppose this back-door gossip should be utterly blundering and untrue, would any one wonder?—Thackeray.
Jealous lest the sky should have a listener.—Byron.
If thou should'st ever come by chance or choice to Modena.—Rogers.
If I should be where I no more can hear thy voice.—Wordsworth.
That accents and looks so winning should disarm me of my resolution, was to be expected.—C. B. Brown.
253. Will and would are used as follows:—
Authority as to future action—first person.
(1) With the FIRST PERSON, will and would are used to express determination as to the future, or a promise; as, for example,—
I will go myself now, and will not return until all is finished.—Cable.
And promised...that I would do him justice, as the sole inventor.—Swift.
Disguising a command.
(2) With the SECOND PERSON, will is used to express command. This puts the order more mildly, as if it were merely expected action; as,—
Thou wilt take the skiff, Roland, and two of my people,... and fetch off certain plate and belongings.—Scott.
You will proceed to Manassas at as early a moment as practicable, and mark on the grounds the works, etc.—War Records.
Mere futurity.
(3) With both SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, will and would are used to express simple futurity, action merely expected to occur; for example,—
All this will sound wild and chimerical.—Burke.
She would tell you that punishment is the reward of the wicked.—Landor.
When I am in town, you'll always have somebody to sit with you. To be sure, so you will.—Dickens.
(4) With FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS, would is used to express a wish,—the original meaning of the word will; for example,—
Subject I omitted: often so.
Would that a momentary emanation from thy glory would visit me!—C. B. Brown.
Thine was a dangerous gift, when thou wast born, The gift of Beauty. Would thou hadst it not.—Rogers
It shall be gold if thou wilt, but thou shalt answer to me for the use of it.—Scott.
What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?—Coleridge.
(5) With the THIRD PERSON, will and would often denote an action as customary, without regard to future time; as,
They will go to Sunday schools, through storms their brothers are afraid of.... They will stand behind a table at a fair all day.—Holmes
On a slight suspicion, they would cut off the hands of numbers of the natives, for punishment or intimidation.—Bancroft.
In this stately chair would he sit, and this magnificent pipe would he smoke, shaking his right knee with a constant motion.—Irving.
Conjugation of Shall and Will as Auxiliaries (with Choose).
254. To express simply expected action:—
ACTIVE VOICE.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Singular.
Singular.
1. I shall choose.
I shall be chosen.
2. You will choose.
You will be chosen.
3. [He] will choose.
[He] will be chosen.
Plural.
Plural.
1. We shall choose.
We shall be chosen.
2. You will choose.
You will be chosen.
3. [They] will choose.
[They] will be chosen.
To express determination, promise, etc.:—
ACTIVE VOICE.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Singular.
Singular.
1. I will choose.
I will be chosen.
2. You shall choose.
You shall be chosen.
3. [He] shall choose.
[He] shall be chosen.
Plural.
Plural.
1. We will choose.
1. We will be chosen.
2. You shall choose.
2. You shall be chosen.
3. [They] shall choose.
3. [They] shall be chosen.
Exercises on Shall and Will.
(a) From Secs. 252 and 253, write out a summary or outline of the various uses of shall and will.
(b) Examine the following sentences, and justify the use of shall and will, or correct them if wrongly used:—
1. Thou art what I would be, yet only seem.
2. We would be greatly mistaken if we thought so.
3. Thou shalt have a suit, and that of the newest cut; the wardrobe keeper shall have orders to supply you.
4. "I shall not run," answered Herbert stubbornly.
5. He informed us, that in the course of another day's march we would reach the prairies on the banks of the Grand Canadian.
6. What shall we do with him? This is the sphinx-like riddle which we must solve if we would not be eaten.
7. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Will we not be classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind?
8. Lucy stood still, very anxious, and wondering whether she should see anything alive.
9. I would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace.
10. No, my son; whatever cash I send you is yours: you will spend it as you please, and I have nothing to say.
11. But I will doubtless find some English person of whom to make inquiries.
12. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to understand several passages in the classics.
13. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and would like permission to remain with you a little while."
14. The beast made a sluggish movement, then, as if he would have more of the enchantment, stirred her slightly with his muzzle.
WEAK VERBS.
255. Those weak verbs which add -d or -ed to form the past tense and past participle, and have no change of vowel, are so easily recognized as to need no special treatment. Some of them are already given as secondary forms of the strong verbs.
But the rest, which may be called irregular weak verbs, need some attention and explanation.
256. The irregular weak verbs are divided into two classes,—
The two classes of irregular weak verbs.
(1) Those which retain the -d or -t in the past tense, with some change of form for the past tense and past participle.
(2) Those which end in -d or -t, and have lost the ending which formerly was added to this.
The old ending to verbs of Class II. was -de or -te; as,—
This worthi man ful wel his wit bisette [used].—Chaucer.
Of smale houndes hadde she, that sche fedde With rosted flessh, or mylk and wastel breed.—Id.
This ending has now dropped off, leaving some weak verbs with the same form throughout: as set, set, set; put, put, put.
257. Irregular Weak Verbs.—Class I.
Present Tense.
Past Tense.
Past Participle.
bereave
bereft, bereave
bereft, bereaved
beseech
besought
besought
burn
burned, burnt
burnt
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
creep
crept
crept
deal
dealt
dealt
dream
dreamt, dreamed
dreamt, dreamed
dwell
dwelt
dwelt
feel
felt
felt
flee
fled
fled
have
had
had (once haved)
hide
hid
hidden, hid
keep
kept
kept
kneel
knelt
knelt
lay
laid
laid
lean
leaned, leant
leaned, leant
leap
leaped, leapt
leaped, leapt
leave
left
left
lose
lost
lost
make
made (once maked)
made
mean
meant
meant
pay
paid
paid
pen [inclose]
penned, pen
penned, pent
say
said
said
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
shoe
shod
shod
sleep
slept
slept
spell
spelled, spelt
spelt
spill
spilt
spilt
stay
staid, stayed
staid, stayed
sweep
swept
swept
teach
taught
taught
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
weep
wept
wept
work
worked, wrought
worked, wrought

258. Irregular Weak Verbs.—Class II.
Present Tense.
Past Tense.
Past Participle.
bend
bent, bended
bent, bended
bleed
bled
bled
breed
bred
bred
build
built
built
cast
cast
cast
cost
cost
cost
feed
fed
fed
gild
gilded, gilt
gilded, gilt
gird
girt, girded
girt, girded
hit
hit
hit
hurt
hurt
hurt
knit
knit, knitted
knit, knitted
lead
led
led
let
let
let
light
lighted, lit
lighted, lit
meet
met
met
put
put
put
quit
quit, quitted
quit, quitted
read
read
read
rend
rent
rent
rid
rid
rid
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
shed
shed
shed
shred
shred
shred
shut
shut
shut
slit
slit
slit
speed
sped
sped
spend
spent
spent
spit
spit [obs. spat]
spit [obs. spat]
split
split
split
spread
spread
spread
sweat
sweat
sweat
thrust
thrust
thrust
wed
wed, wedded
wed, wedded
wet
wet, wetted
wet, wetted
Tendency to phonetic spelling.
250. There seems to be in Modern English a growing tendency toward phonetic spelling in the past tense and past participle of weak verbs. For example, -ed, after the verb bless, has the sound of t: hence the word is often written blest. So with dipt, whipt, dropt, tost, crost, drest, prest, etc. This is often seen in poetry, and is increasing in prose.
Some Troublesome Verbs.
Lie and lay in use and meaning.
260. Some sets of verbs are often confused by young students, weak forms being substituted for correct, strong forms.
Lie and lay need close attention. These are the forms:—
Present Tense.
Past Tense.
Pres. Participle.
Past Participle.
1. Lie
lay
lying
lain
2. Lay
laid
laying
laid
The distinctions to be observed are as follows:—
(1) Lie, with its forms, is regularly intransitive as to use. As to meaning, lie means to rest, to recline, to place one's self in a recumbent position; as, "There lies the ruin."
(2) Lay, with its forms, is always transitive as to use. As to meaning, lay means to put, to place a person or thing in position; as, "Slowly and sadly we laid him down." Also lay may be used without any object expressed, but there is still a transitive meaning; as in the expressions, "to lay up for future use," "to lay on with the rod," "to lay about him lustily."
Sit and set.
261. Sit and set have principal parts as follows:—
Present Tense.
Past Tense.
Pres. Participle.
Past Participle.
1. Sit
sat
sitting
sat
2. Set
set
setting
set
Notice these points of difference between the two verbs:—
(1) Sit, with its forms, is always intransitive in use. In meaning, sit signifies (a) to place one's self on a seat, to rest; (b) to be adjusted, to fit; (c) to cover and warm eggs for hatching, as, "The hen sits."
(2) Set, with its forms, is always transitive in use when it has the following meanings: (a) to put or place a thing or person in position, as "He set down the book;" (b) to fix or establish, as, "He sets a good example."
Set is intransitive when it means (a) to go down, to decline, as, "The sun has set;" (b) to become fixed or rigid, as, "His eyes set in his head because of the disease;" (c) in certain idiomatic expressions, as, for example, "to set out," "to set up in business," "to set about a thing," "to set to work," "to set forward," "the tide sets in," "a strong wind set in," etc.
Exercise.
Examine the forms of lie, lay, sit and set in these sentences; give the meaning of each, and correct those used wrongly.
1. If the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his purpose, all history must be ransacked.
2. He sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly on Hamlet, and with his mouth open.
3. The days when his favorite volume set him upon making wheelbarrows and chairs,... can never again be the realities they were.
4. To make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body, it was gathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt.
5. He had set up no unattainable standard of perfection.
6. For more than two hundred years his bones lay undistinguished.
7. The author laid the whole fault on the audience.
8. Dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could bestride him.
9.
And send'st him...to his gods where happy liesHis petty hope in some near port or bay,And dashest him again to earth:—there let him lay.
10. Achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still.
11. It may be laid down as a general rule, that history begins in novel, and ends in essay.
12. I never took off my clothes, but laid down in them.